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Umbria, AKA the 'Green heart of Italy' is the only landlocked region of Italy. It has a very central, and therefore strategic location, acting both as a north/south crossroads and as a gateway between two seas, the Adriatic and the Tirrenian. As with many other areas of the country, Umbria has historically integrated and adapted to many diverse cultures, from Etruscans through to Romans, Longobards and on to the Pontifical state and becoming a destination for pilgrims from all over the world.

Numerous archaeological finds have unearthed a human presence in Umbria dating back to Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods; flints and arrowheads have been found on several river plains and around the shores of Lake Trasimeno, and burial chambers close to Spoleto date to the time between the Bronze and Iron Ages. At around one thousand years BC a tribe - probably of Indo-European origin - known as the Oscan-Umbrians (Umbri) arrived in the region, establishing many settlements and the foundations of towns and cities such as Terni, Todi, Spoleto, Assisi, Gubbio and Città di Castello.

Eventually the Etruscans arrived, forcing the Umbrians to concede much of their territory and to retreat into various central valleys and plains; their was cooperation with the Etruscans, and, many centuries later, the two peoples put up a united front against the might of Rome.
Quite who the Etruscans were is far from clear. The three main theories have it that they came to Italy by sea from the Far East, that they came down from northern Europe, or that they are descended from the so-called 'Pre-Italians' of the Bronze Age. They were superlative road builders, they began to clear swamps and marshlands and were great sea-farers, they produced exquisite art works and jewellery, and their tombs and 'cities of the dead' (necropolis) have survived across the centuries and have told much of what is known today. They have shaped Umbria like no other people.

They conquered the cities of Umbria, also founding their own, establishing them as autonomous city states with federal agreements between them. Their tenure is still clearly visible in many Umbrian towns and cities, particularly Orvieto, Perugia and Città della Pieve, where the Etruscan city-scape evolves around ridge-following roads, not around central squares, as with Roman settlements. It was the might of Rome that saw the relatively swift decline of the Etruscan civilisation, and the battle of Sentino in 295 BC saw the Etruscans, alliances notwithstanding, defeated, with all of Umbria falling under the control of Rome.
Many Umbrian cities were converted to colonies, avoiding direct confrontation, and, in 90 BC, the Umbrian people are granted the full status or Roman citizenship. Roman rule brought to Umbria a long period of relative peace and increasing cultural and economic prosperity, and, par for the course, an extensive period of construction and modernisation: roads, aqueducts, drainage, villas, theatres and entire new settlements.

In common with other areas of Italy, Umbria was subjected to great rack and ruin come the fall of the Roman Empire. The population is decimated by the 'Barbarian hordes', and there is widespread famine and disease. The struggle between Barbarians and Byzantines created a power vacuum that began to be filled by Christianity. By the 4th century there were already 21 distinct dioceses throughout Umbria, and the Bishops came to be the cultural and spiritual figureheads of the region.
Umbria was to enjoy a brief period of calm when the Byzantines finally defeated the Goths in 522, this lasting until the Longobards arrived and took possession of large parts of eastern Umbria, eventually establishing the Duchy of Spoleto.
The Duchy achieved a large degree of autonomy, and the prosperity gained ensured that that it survived well beyond the end of Longobard rule.

Having been donated by Pippin the Short (no, really) and Charlemagne, the Umbrian territories, including the Duchy of Spoleto, were passed to the church. With the fall of the empire of Charlemagne, Rome and the church consolidated their position, formally declaring Umbria to be part of the Papal State. In common with much of the rest of western Europe, many independent city-states were formed in Umbria at the beginning of the 11th century. The region flourished, and there were increases in both prosperity and population, with merchants and artisans acquiring respect and positions of authority.

The continuing history of Umbria, up until the 16th century, is marked by internal conflicts and sparring (notably Guelph versus Ghibelline) alongside steady economic, artistic and spiritual growth. The region was a centre of learning courtesy of numerous Benedictine and Franciscan monasteries, and the University of Perugia was established in 1308. The Papacy 'took' Umbria in the 16th century, with Perugia, the main city, being the last to fall in the year 1540. Umbria was briefly help by France from 1798 to 1800 and again later from 1808 to 1814, after which it again reverted to Roman rule. Several anti-Papacy revolts later, Umbria joins the Italian state in 1860.
The twentieth century saw Umbria embracing the Industrial Revolution, with Todi being dubbed the 'Manchester of Italy'. Various areas were heavily damaged by WW2 bombing, and extensive urban reconstruction was undertaken. Umbria today is an increasingly popular tourist destination, with the wonders of the Etruscans mixing in alongside those of Ancient Rome and the splendid array of mediaeval towns and hilltop villages.